MNC'S, ENVIRONMENT ETHICS, COMPUTER ETHICS, WEAPON ETHICS- PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND HUMAN VALUES

GLOBALIZATION

Globalization means integration of countries through commerce, transfer of technology, and exchange of information and culture. In a way, it includes acting together and interacting economies through trade, investment, loan, development schemes and capital across countries. These involve flow of knowledge, science, technology, skills, culture, information, and entertainment, besides direct human resource, tele-work, and outsourcing. For the engineers, the issues such as multinational organizations, computer, internet functions, military development and environmental ethics have assumed greater importance for their very sustenance and progress.

MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS

Organizations who have established business in more than one country, are called multinational

corporation. The headquarters are in the home country and the business is extended in many host

countries. The Western organizations do business in less developing and under-developed countries to gain the advantage of inexpensive labor, availability of natural resources, conducive-tax atmosphere, and virgin market for the products.

At the same time, the developing countries are also benefited by fresh job opportunities, jobs with higher remuneration and challenges, transfer of technology, and several social benefits by the wealth developed. But this happens invariably with some social and cultural disturbance. Loss of jobs for the home country, and loss or exploitation of natural resources, political instability for the host countries are some of the threats of globalization.

1 International Human Rights

The MNCs have to follow minimal rights to smoothen the transactions when the engineers and employers of MNCs have to interact at official, social, economic and sometimes political levels. At international level, the organizations are expected to adopt the minimum levels of (a) values, such as mutual support, loyalty, and reciprocity, (b) the negative duty of refraining from harmful actions such as violence and fraud, and (c) basic fairness and practical justice in case of conflicts.

The ten international rights to be taken care of, in this context are:

1. Right of freedom of physical movement of people

2. Right of ownership of properties

3. Freedom from torture

4. Right to fair trial on the products

5. Freedom from discrimination on the basis of race or sex.

6. Physical security. Use of safety gadgets have to be supplied to the workers even if the laws of the host country do not suggest such measures.

7. Freedom of speech and forming association

8. Right to have a minimum education

9. Right to political participation

10. Right to live and exist (i.e., coexistence). The individual liberty and sanctity of the human life are to be respected by all societies.

2 Technology Transfer

It is a process of moving technology to a new setting and implementing it there. Technology includes hardware (machines and installations) and the techniques (technical, organizational, and managerial skills and procedures). It may mean moving the technology applications from laboratory to the field/factory or from one country to another. This transfer is affected by governments, organizations, universities, and MNCs.

3 Appropriate Technology

Identification, transfer, and implementation of most suitable technology for a set of new situations, is called appropriate technology. Technology includes both hardware (machines and installations) and software (technical, organizational and managerial skills and procedures). Factors such as economic, social, and engineering constraints are the causes for the modification of technology.

Depending on the availability of resources, physical conditions (such as temperature, humidity, salinity, geographical location, isolated land area, and availability of water), capital opportunity costs, and the human value system (social acceptability) which includes their traditions, beliefs, and religion, the appropriateness is to be determined.

For example, small farmers in our country prefer to own and use the power tillers, rather than the

high-powered tractors or sophisticated harvesting machines. On the other hand, the latest technological device, the cell phones and wireless local loop phones have found their way into remote villages and hamlets, than the landline telephone connections.

 The term appropriate is value based and it should ensure fulfillment of the human needs and protection of the environment.

4 How Appropriate is Aptech?

1. A case against the technology transfer is that the impact of borrowed or transferred technology

has been threatening the environment beyond its capacity and sustainable development of the host countries. Large plantations that orient their efforts to exports leave the small farmers out of jobs and at the mercy of the foreign country.

For example, genetically modified cotton have shown sufficient disturbance in Europe and Africa. This has made the European Union to oppose the entry of G.M. cotton into Europe.

2. The high technology has contributed to large-scale migration from villages to the cities where corporations are located, leading to the undesirable side-effects of overcrowding of cities, such as the scarcity of water, insanitation, poverty, and the increase in crimes.

3. The term ‘appropriate’ should emphasize the social acceptability and environmental protection

of the host countries, and this need to be addressed while transferring technology. Thus, we confirm the view that engineering is a continual social experimentation with nature.

5 MNCs and Morality

The economic and environmental conditions of the home and host countries may vary. But the multinational institutions have to adopt appropriate measures not to disturb or dislocate the social and living conditions and cultures of the home countries. A few principles are enlisted here:

1. MNC should respect the basic human rights of the people of the host countries.

2. The activities of the MNC should give economic and transfer technical benefits, and implement welfare measures of the workers of the host countries.

3. The business practices of the multinational organizations should improve and promote morally

justified institutions in the host countries.

4. The multinationals must respect the laws and political set up, besides cultures and promote cultures of the host countries.

5. The multinational organizations should provide a fair remuneration to the employees of the host countries. If the remuneration is high as that of home country, this may create tensions and if it is too low it will lead to exploitation.

6. Multinational institutions should provide necessary safety for the workers when they are engaged in hazardous activities and ‘informed consent’ should be obtained from them.

Adequate compensation should be paid to them for the additional risks undertaken.

Case Study: Bhopal Gas Tragedy

The Union Carbide had 51% and the Indian subsidiary UC India Ltd. had 49% of stock. In 1983, there were 14 plants in India manufacturing chemicals, pesticides, and other hazardous products. The Bhopal plant had a license to make Methyl isocyanate-based pesticides. In November 1984, they had decided to close down the plant. For quite some years before the production rate was going down.

The cumulative effects of the following factors caused the tragedy in Bhopal on December 3, 1984.

1. Maintenance was neglected and the trained maintenance personnel were reduced as economy

measure. Need for quick diagnosis aggravates the situation by causing considerable psychological stress on the plant personnel.

2. Training activities for the supervisory personnel were stopped. This led to inadequate training

of the personnel to handle emergencies.

3. Periodical Safety Inspection teams from U.S. which visited previously were also stopped.

From the initial U.S. Standards, the safety procedures were reduced to low level Indian standards. The procedures had been deteriorating at these sites for weeks or months, prior to the accident. There was clear lack of management systems and procedures to ensure safety.

4. Vital spares for equipments and machineries were not available

5. Absence of capital replacement led to the stagnant economy of the plant.

6. The high turnover of the experienced engineers and technicians, who were demoralized by the lack of development.

7. Lack of experienced personnel to operate and control the vital installations.

8. They have not conducted a thorough process hazards analysis that would have exposed the serious hazards which resulted in disaster later.

9. No emergency plan was put in practice, during the shut down and maintenance.

10. Above all, the commitment of top-level management to safety was lacking. They have been paying only lip service ( Oral words, no actions) to safety of people of the host country.

Technologically, the tragedy was caused by a series of events listed:

1. The safety manual of Union Carbide prescribed that the MIC tanks were to be filled only up

to 60% of the capacity. But the tanks were reported to have been filled up to 75%.

2. The safety policy prescribed that an empty tank should be available as a stand-bye in case of

emergency. But the emergency tank was also filled with to its full capacity (misappropriate technology).

 3. The storage tanks should be refrigerated to make the chemical less reactive. But here the refrigeration system was shut down as an economy measure. This raised the temperature of the gas stored.

4. The plant was shut down for maintenance two months earlier. The worker who cleaned the pipes and filters connected to the tanks and closed the valves, was not trained properly. He did not insert the safety disks to prevent any possible leakage of the gas. This led to the build up of temperature and pressure in the storage tanks.

5. When the gas started leaking out, the operators tried to use the vent gas-scrubber that was designed to reduce the exhausting gas. But that scrubber was also shut down.

6. There was a flare tower that was designed to burn-off the gas escaping from the scrubber. That was not also in working condition.

7. The workers finally tried to spray water up to 100 feet to quench the gas (which is water soluble). But the gas was escaping from the chimney of 120-feet high.

8. The workers were not trained on safety drills or emergency drills or any evacuation plans. The gas escaped into the air and spread over 40 sq. km. About 600 people died and left 7000 injured and the health of about 2 million people was affected adversely. Even after 22 years, influence of the Central Government and the courts, the compensation had not reached all the affected people.

6 Ethical Balance

There is a saying, “When in Rome do as Romans do”. Can this be applied in the case of MNCs?

This is called ethical relativism. The actions of corporation and individuals that are accepted by law, custom and other values of a society can be morally right in that society. It is morally false, if it is illogical. It means, the corporation (and the engineers) functioning in other countries must understand their law, customs, and beliefs and act in line with those prevailing in that country. This will lead to disaster if the country is a developing one where the safety standards are given a go-bye. Laws and conventions are not morally self-sustaining. In a overpopulated country, the loss of human lives may not physically affect them, but the tragedy cast shadow for over decades, as it happened in Bhopal in 1984. This will be criticized from the points of view of human rights, public welfare, and respect to people.

On the other hand, the organizations may practice laws of the home country, without adjustments

to the host culture. This stand is called ethical absolutism. This is again false, since the moral principles in a different culture come into conflicts, and implementation in the ‘hostile’ culture is almost impossible.

Hence, MNCs may adopt ethical relationalism (contexualism) as a compromise. Moral judgments are made in relation to the factors prevailing locally, without framing rigid rules. The judgments should be contextual and in line with the customs of other cultures. The ethical pluralism which views more than one justifiable moral solution is also adaptable. This principle accepts cultural diversity and respects the legitimate cultural differences among individuals and groups, of the host country.

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Environmental ethics is the study of (a) moral issues concerning the environment, and (b) moral

perspectives, beliefs, or attitudes concerning those issues. Engineers in the past are known for their negligence of environment, in their activities. It has become important now that engineers design eco-friendly tools, machines, sustainable products, processes, and projects.

These are essential now to (a) ensure protection (safety) of environment (b) prevent the degradation of environment, and (c) slow down the exploitation of the natural resources, so that the future generation can survive.

The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) code of ethics, has specifically requires that “engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance of professional duties” The term sustainable development emphasizes on the investment, orientation of technology, development and functioning of organizations to meet the present needs of people and at the same time ensuring the future generations to meet their needs.

Compaq Computer Corporation (now merged with HP) was the leader, who exhibited their commitment to environmental health, through implementation of the concept of ‘Design for environment’ on their products, unified standards all over the world units, and giving priority to vendors with a record of environmental concern.

Engineers as experimenters have certain duties towards environmental ethics, namely:

1. Environmental impact assessment: One major but sure and unintended effect of technology is wastage and the resulting pollution of land, water, air and even space. Study how the industry and technology affects the environment.

2. Establish standards: Study and to fix the tolerable and actual pollution levels.

3. Counter measures: Study what the protective or eliminating measures are available for immediate implementation

4. Environmental awareness: Study on how to educate the people on environmental practices, issues, and possible remedies.

A)  Disasters

1. Plastic Waste Disposal

In our country, several crores of plastic bottles are used as containers for water and oil, and plastic bags are used to pack different materials ranging from vegetables to gold ornaments. Hardly any of these are recycled. They end up in gutters, roadsides, and agricultural fields. In all these destinations, they created havoc. The worse still is the burning of plastic materials in streets and camphor along with plastic cover in temples, since they release toxic fumes and threaten seriously the air quality. Cities and local administration have to act on this, collect and arrange for recycling through industries.

Recently Jenna R.Jambeck, a National Geographic explorer talked about the threat that is being created by plastic waste in ocean. already it has resulted in extinction of many species and according to her by 2025 around 17 million tonnes of plastic waste would be disposed into ocean per year and that can be a threat to more than 700 species. 



She proposes 5C approach. - Contain, Collect, Capture, Culture and Contact. Integration of these 5C's can alone help to fight plastic menace. 

2. e-Waste Disposal

The parts of computers and electronic devices which have served its useful life present a major environmental issue for all the developing countries including India. This scrap contains highly toxic elements such as lead, cadmium, and mercury.

Even the radioactive waste will lose 89% of its toxicity after 200 years, by which time it will be no more toxic than some natural minerals in the ground. It will lose 99% of its remaining toxicity over the next 30,000 years. The toxic chemical agents such as mercury, arsenic, and cadmium retain toxicity undiminished forever.

But these scraps are illegally imported by unscrupulous agencies to salvage some commercially valuable inputs. Instead of spending and managing on the scrap, unethical organizations sell them to countries such as India. This is strictly in violation of the Basel Convention of the United Nations Environment Program, which has banned the movement of hazardous waste.

A recent report of the British Environment Agency, 13 has revealed that the discarded computers, television sets, refrigerators, mobile phones, and electrical equipments have been dispatched to India and Pakistan in large quantity, for ultimate disposal in environmentally-unacceptable ways and at great risk to the health of the labour.

Even in the West, the electronic junk has been posing problems. Strong regulation including (a)

pressure on industries to set up disassembling facilities, (b) ban on disposal in landfill sites, (c) legislation for recycling requirements for these junk and (d) policy incentives for eco-friendly design are essential for our country. The European Union through the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive has curbed the e-waste dumping by member countries and require manufacturers to implement methods to recover and recycle the components.

Indian Government expressed its concern through a technical guide on environmental management for IT Industry in December, 2004. It is yet to ratify the ban on movement of hazardous waste according to the Basel Convention. A foreign news agency exposed a few years back, the existence of a thriving e-waste disposal hub in a suburb of New Delhi, operating in appallingly dangerous conditions. Our country needs regulations to define waste, measures to stop illegal imports, and institutional structures to handle safe disposal of domestic industrial scrap.

3. Industrial Waste Disposal

There has been a lot of complaints through the media, on (a) against the Sterlite Copper Smelting Plant in Thuthukkudi (1997) against its pollution (Sulphur dioxide emissions went beyond limits leading to burning sensation and breath shortening , choking), and (b) when Indian companies imported the discarded French Warship Clemenceau for disposal, the poisonous asbestos compounds were expected to pollute the atmosphere besides exposing the labor to a great risk, during the disposal. The government did not act immediately. Fortunately for Indians, the French Government intervened and withdrew the ship, and the serious threat was averted!

4. Depletion of Ozone Layer

The ozone layer protects the entire planet from the ill-effects of ultraviolet radiation and is vital for all living organisms in this world. But it is eaten away by the Chloro-fluro-carbons (CFC) such as Freon emanating from the refrigerators, air conditioners, and aerosol can spray. This has caused also skin cancer to sun-bathers in the Western countries. Further NO and NO₂ gases were also found to react with the ozone. Apart from engineers, the organizations, laws of the country and local administration and market mechanisms are required to take up concerted efforts to protect the environment.

5. Global Warming

Over the past 30 years, the Earth has warmed by 0.6 °C. Over the last 100 years, it has warmed by 0.8 °C. It is likely to push up temperature by 3^oC by 2100, according to NASA’s studies. The U.S. administration has accepted the reality of global climate change, which has been associated with stronger hurricanes, severe droughts, intense heat waves and the melting of polar ice. Greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide emitted by motor vehicles and coal-fired power plants, trap heat like the glass walls of a greenhouse, cause the Earth to warm up. Delegates from the six countries — Australia, China, India, Japan, South Korea and US met in California in April 2006 for the first working session of the Asia- Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate. These six countries account for about half of the world’s emissions of climate-heating greenhouse gases. Only one of the six, Japan, is committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 5.2 per cent below 1990 levels by 2012 under the Kyoto Agreement.

About 190 nations met in Germany in the middle of May 2006 and tried to bridge vast policy gaps between the United States and its main allies over how to combat climate change amid growing evidence that the world is warming that could wreak havoc by stoking more droughts, heat waves, floods, more powerful storms and raise global sea levels by almost a meter by 2100.

6. Acid Rain

Large emissions of sulphur oxides and nitrous oxides are being released in to the air from the thermal power stations using the fossil fuels, and several processing industries. These gases form compounds with water in the air and precipitates as rain or snow on to the earth. The acid rain in some parts of the world has caused sufficient damage to the fertility of the land and to the human beings.

Human-centered Environmental Ethics

This approach assumes that only human beings have inherent moral worth duly to be taken care of. Other living being and ecosystems are only instrumental in nature. Utilitarianism aims to maximize good consequences for human beings. Most of the goods are engineered products made out of natural resources. Human beings have also (a) recreational interests (enjoy leisure through mountaineering, sports, and pastimes), (b) aesthetic interests (enjoy nature as from seeing waterfalls and snow-clad mountains), (c) scientific interests to explore into nature or processes, and (d) a basic interest to survive, by preservation as well as conservation of nature and natural resources.

Rights ethicists favor the basic rights to live and right to liberty, to realize the right to a live in a

Supportive environment. Further, virtue ethics stresses importance of prudence, humility, appreciation of natural beauty, and gratitude to the Mother Nature that provides everything.

However, the nature-centered ethics, which ensures the worth of all living beings and organisms,

seems to be more appropriate in the present-day context. Many Asian religions stress the unity with nature, rather than domination and exploitation. The Zen Buddhism calls for a simple life with compassion towards humans and other animals. Hinduism enshrines the ideal of oneness (advaitha) in and principle of ahimsa to all living beings. It identifies all the human beings, animals, and plants as divine. The eco-balance is the need of the hour and the engineers are the right experimenters to achieve this.

Adopt recycling to manage waste

COMPUTER ETHICS

Computer ethics is defined as (a) study and analysis of nature and social impact of computer technology, (b) formulation and justification of policies, for ethical use of computers. This subject has become relevant to the professionals such as designers of computers, programmers, system analysts, system managers, and operators. The use of computers have raised a host of moral concerns such as free speech, privacy, intellectual property right, and physical as well as mental harm. There appears to be no conceptual framework available on ethics, to study and understand and resolve the problems in computer technology.

A) Types of Issues

Different types of problems are found in computer ethics.

1. Computer as the Instrument of Unethical Acts

(a) The usage of computer replaces the job positions. This has been overcome to a large extent

by readjusting work assignments, and training everyone on computer applications such as word processing, editing, and graphics.

(b) Breaking privacy. Information or data of the individuals accessed or erased or the ownership

changed.

(c) Defraud a bank or a client, by accessing and withdrawing money from other’s bank account.

2. Computer as the Object of Unethical Act

The data are accessed and deleted or changed.

(a) Hacking: The software is stolen or information is accessed from other computers. This may

cause financial loss to the business or violation of privacy rights of the individuals or business.

In case of defense information being hacked, this may endanger the security of the nation.

(b) Spreading virus: Through mail or otherwise, other computers are accessed and the files are erased or contents changed altogether. ‘Trojan horses’ are implanted to distort the messages and files beyond recovery. This again causes financial loss or mental torture to the individuals.

Some hackers feel that they have justified their right of free information or they do it for fun. However, these acts are certainly unethical.

(c) Health hazard: The computers pose threat during their use as well as during disposal.

3. Problems Related to the Autonomous Nature of Computer

(a) Security risk: Recently the Tokyo Stock Exchange faced a major embarrassment. A seemingly casual mistake by a junior trader of a large security house led to huge losses including that of reputation. The order through the exchange’s trading system was to sell one share for 600,000 Yen. Instead the trader keyed in a sale order for 600,000 shares at the rate of one Yen each.

Naturally the shares on offer at the ridiculously low price were lapped up. And only a few buyers agreed to reverse the deal! The loss to the securities firm was said to be huge, running into several hundred thousands. More important to note, such an obvious mistake could not be corrected by some of the advanced technology available. For advanced countries like Japan who have imbibed the latest technology, this would be a new kind of learning experience.

(b) Loss of human lives: Risk and loss of human lives lost by computer, in the operational control of military weapons. There is a dangerous instability in automated defense system.

An unexpected error in the software or hardware or a conflict during interfacing between the two, may trigger a serious attack and cause irreparable human loss before the error is traced. The Chinese embassy was bombed by U.S. military in Iraq a few years back, but enquiries revealed that the building was shown in a previous map as the building where insurgents stayed.

(c) In flexible manufacturing systems, the autonomous computer is beneficial in obtaining continuous monitoring and automatic control.

Various issues related to computer ethics are discussed as follows:

B) Computers In Workplace

The ethical problems initiated by computers in the workplace are:

1. Elimination of routine and manual jobs. This leads to unemployment, but the creation of skilled and IT-enabled service jobs are more advantageous for the people. Initially this may require some upgradation of their skills and knowledge, but a formal training will set this problem right. For example, in place of a typist, we have a programmer or an accountant.

2. Health and safety: The ill-effects due to electromagnetic radiation, especially on women and pregnant employees, mental stress, wrist problem known as Carpel Tunnel Syndrome, and backpain due to poor ergonomic seating designs, and eye strain due to poor lighting and flickers in the display and long exposure, have been reported worldwide. Over a period of long exposure, these are expected to affect the health and safety of the people. The computer designers should take care of these aspects and management should monitor the health and safety of the computer personnel.

3. Computer failure: Failure in computers may be due to errors in the hardware or software. Hardware errors are rare and they can be solved easily and quickly. But software errors are very serious as they can stop the entire network. Testing and quality systems for software have gained relevance and importance in the recent past, to avoid or minimize these errors.

C) Property Issues

The property issues concerned with the computers are:

1. Computers have been used to extort money through anonymous telephone calls.

2. Computers are used to cheat and steal by current as well as previous employees.

3. Cheating of and stealing from the customers and clients.

4. Violation of contracts on computer sales and services.

5. Conspiracy as a group, especially with the internet, to defraud the gullible, stealing the identity and to forge documents.

6. Violation of property rights: Is the software a property? The software could be either a Program (an algorithm, indicating the steps in solving a problem) or a Source code (the algorithm in a general computer language such as FORTAN, C and COBOL or an Object code (to translate the source code into the machine language). How do we apply the concept of property here? This demands a framework for ethical judgments.

Property is what the laws permits and defines as can be owned, exchanged, and used. The computer hardware (product) is protected by patents. The software (idea, expression) is protected by copyrights and trade secrets. But algorithms can not be copyrighted, because the mathematical formulas can be discovered but not owned. The object codes which are not intelligible to human beings can not be copyrighted.

Thus, we see that reproducing multiple copies from one copy of (licensed) software and distribution or sales are crimes. The open source concepts have, to a great extent, liberalized and promoted the use of computer programs for the betterment of society.

D) Computer Crime

The ethical features involved in computer crime are:

1. Physical Security

The computers are to be protected against theft, fire, and physical damage. This can be achieved by proper insurance on the assets.

2. Logical security

The aspects related are (a) the privacy of the individuals or organizations, (b) confidentiality, (c)

integrity, to ensure that the modification of data or program are done only by the authorized persons,(d) uninterrupted service. This is achieved by installing appropriate uninterrupted power supply or back-up provisions, and (e) protection against hacking that causes dislocation or distortion. Licensed anti-virus packages and firewalls are used by all computer users to ensure this protection. Passwords and data encryption have been incorporated in the computer software as security measures. But these have also been attacked and bye-passed. But this problem is not been solved completely.

Major weaknesses in this direction are: (a) the difficulty in tracing the evidence involved and (b)

absence of stringent punishment against the crime. The origin of a threat to the Central Government posted from an obscure browsing center, remained unsolved for quite a long time. Many times, such crimes have been traced, but there are no clear cyber laws to punish and deter the criminals.

E) Privacy and Anonymity

The data transmission and accessibility have improved tremendously by using the computers, but the right to privacy has been threatened to a great extent. Some issues concerned with the privacy are listed here under:

1. Records of Evidence

Service records or criminal records and the details of people can be stored and accessed to prove the innocence or guilty. Records on psychiatric treatment by medical practitioners or hospital, or records of membership of organizations may sometime embarrass the persons in later years.

2. Hacking

There are computer enthusiasts who willfully or for fun, plant virus or “Trojan horses” that may fill the disc space, falsify information, erase files, and even harm the hardware. They breakdown the functioning of computers and can be treated as violation of property rights. Some hackers opine that the information should be freely available for everybody. It is prudent that the right to individual privacy in limiting the access to the information on oneself, should not be violated. Further any unauthorized use of personal information (which is a property), is to be considered as theft. Besides the individual privacy, the national security, and freedom within the economy are to be respected. The proprietary information and data of the organizations are to be protected so that they can pursue the goals without hindrance.

3. Legal Response

In the Indian scene, the Right to Information Act 2005 14 provides the right to the citizens to secure access to information under the control of public authorities, including the departments of the central government, state governments, government bodies, public sector companies and public sector banks, to promote transparency and accountability of public authorities.

Right to information: Under the Act, section 2 (j), the right to information includes the right to

(1) Inspect works, documents, records, (2) take notes, extracts or certified copies of documents or records, (3) take certified samples of material, and (4) obtain information in the form of printouts, diskettes, floppies, tapes, video cassettes or in any other electronic mode.

WHAT IS NOT OPEN TO DISCLOSURE? The following are exempt from disclosure (Sections

8 and 11)

1. Information, disclosure of which would prejudicially affect the sovereignty and integrity of

India, the security, strategic, scientific or economic interests of the state, relation with, foreign state or lead to incitement of an offence.

2. Information which has been expressly forbidden to be published by any court of law or tribunal or the disclosure of which may constitute contempt of court.

3. Information, the disclosure of which would cause a breach of privilege of Parliament or the State Legislature.

4. Information including commercial confidence, trade secrets or intellectual property, the disclosure of which would harm the competitive position of a third party, unless the competent authority is satisfied that larger public *interest warrants the disclosure of such information.

5. Information available to a person in his fiduciary relationship( relation involving trust), unless the competent authority is satisfied that *the larger public interest warrants the disclosure of such information.

6. Information received in confidence from foreign government.

7. Information, the disclosure of which would endanger the life or physical safety of any person or identify the source of information or assistance given in confidence for law enforcement or security purposes.

8. Information which would impede the process of investigation or apprehension or prosecution of offenders.

9. Information which relates to personal information the disclosure of which has no relationship to any public activity or interest, or which would cause unwarranted invasion of the privacy of the individual.

10. Notwithstanding anything in the Official Secrets Act 1923 nor any of the exemptions listed above, a public authority may allow access to information, if public interest in disclosure outweighs the harm to the protected interests.

11. Where the Information Officer, intends to disclose any information or record, on a request, which relates to or has been supplied by a third party and has been treated as confidential by that third party, the officer shall give a written notice to such third party of the request and of the fact that the officer intends to disclose the information, and invites the third party to make a submission in writing or orally, regarding whether the information should be disclosed, and such submission of the third party shall be kept in view while taking a decision about disclosure of information: provided that except in the case of trade or commercial secrets protected by law, disclosure may be allowed if the public interest in disclosure outweighs in importance any possible harm or injury to the interests of such third party.

Laws to regulate the access to information are very expensive to enforce and inconvenient to

genuine users such as accessing records of people for medical research.

4. Anonymity

Anonymity in the computer communication has some merits as well as demerits. While seeking medical or psychological counseling or discussion (chat) on topics, such as AIDS, abortion, gay rights, the anonymity offers protection (against revealing their identity). But frequently, anonymity is misused by some people for money laundering, drug trafficking and preying upon the vulnerable.

Professional Responsibility

The computer professionals should be aware of different conflicts of interests as they transact with other at different levels. The IEEE and Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) have established the codes of ethics to manage such responsibilities.

The Big Net

Almost all the countries are now connected by the internet. But there are no international laws to regulate the issues of freedom of speech, intellectual property rights, privacy rights etc. Another development in this direction is, the universities offering degrees-on-line. Third World is certainly gaining knowledge and education. Even Google.com has announced plans to publish research papers through the World Wide Web. Knowledge is power. Knowledge is internationalised! Will this lead to empowerment of the Third World and promotion of World peace? Only the future can answer this question.

WEAPONS DEVELOPMENT

Military activities including the world wars have stimulated the growth of technology. The growth of Internet amply illustrates this fact. The development of warfare and the involvement of engineers bring out many ethical issues concerned with engineers, such as the issue of integrity in experiments as well as expenditure in defense research and development, issue of personal commitment and conscience, and the issues of social justice and social health.

Engineers involve in weapons development because of the following reasons:

1. It gives one job with high salary.

2. One takes pride and honor in participating in the activities towards the defense of the nation

(patriotic fervor).

3. One believes the he fights a war on terrorism and thereby contribute to peace and stability of the country. Ironically, the wars have never won peace, only peace can win peace!

4. By research and development, the engineer is reducing or eliminating the risk from enemy weapons, and saving one’s country from disaster.

5. By building-up arsenals and show of force, a country can force the rogue country, towards regulation. Engineers can participate effectively in arms control negotiations for surrender or peace, e.g., bombing of Nagasaki and Hiroshima led to surrender by the Japanese in 1945.

Many engineers had to fight and convince their personal conscience. The scene such as that of a

Vietnamese village girl running wild with burns on the body and horror in the face and curse in her mind has moved some engineers away from their jobs.